Tests of Special Abilities
Oftentimes,
General Ability tests are not specific enough to have high levels of predictive
validity within specific circumstances.
Psychological
Tests all vary on the Bandwidth/Fidelity dimension
Bandwidth/Fidelity
Problem : Cronbach (1970)
The broader the psychological test
(bandwidth), the less precise the measurement will be (fidelity)
As
bandwidth increases, the fidelity associated with that bandwidth decreases.
A
test of "g" has greater bandwidth than a test of verbal ability, and
a test of verbal ability has a greater bandwidth than a test of vocabulary.
Origins
of Vocational Testing
The
field of scientific management was responsible for the increase in
psychological testing for employment purposes, following the advent of
intelligence testing.
Schools
such as the University of Minnesota developed tests of specific abilities in an
attempt to match a particular employee to a job in which they would be
successful.
They
developed test of intellectual ability, spatial and mathematical ability,
perceptual accuracy, and motor/dexterity tests, to name just a few.
The
theory is that specific abilities are more representative of separate
occupational categories than overall differences in "g" .
Vehicle
Operators benefit from high Motor skills, and spatial and mechanical skills
Clerks
benefit from high intellect and high levels of perceptual accuracy.
By
giving tests specific to occupation, we hope to increase the efficacy of the
selection process.
Problems
with early measures of special abilities and occupational categorization.
The
validity coefficients for these measures is typically only moderate, ranging
from .14 to .40
However,
remember that due to differences in base rate and selection ratios, even a test
with a low validity may be useful to a large organization.
Also, validity coefficients are typically
higher when compared to job training performance, than when compared to actual
on-the-job ratings.
Additionally, these validity coefficients
can vary due to gender, ethnicity, motivation, SES, and personality variables.
Remember
that for large organizations, diversity as well as efficiency is a corporate
goal in ensuring long term survival.
Performance
Tests vs. Paper & Pencil tests
Mundane
realism : the degree to which the experimental situation represents the
"real world" correlate.
Paper
& Pencil (or Computer Based Tests) usually have little mundane realism.
Work
Sample Tests
:require potential employees to perform a variety of behaviors which would
actually be required by the job. Sometimes referred to as
"job-replica" tests.
In-Basket
Technique
: Used to evaluate administrators and
executives, job candidates must process a variety of items commonly found in a
managers in-box, such as memos, notes, directives, reposts, Faxes, and other
letters which require some type of administrative action.
Respondents
indicate what action they would take to each item, and expert raters determine
the efficacy of those actions, in order to assign an overall In-basket rating
to the potential applicants.
Although we might think these measures have greater
validity than Pen & Paper tests, respondents may perform differently on the
test than in the actual situation (Hawthorne Effect)
A variation on the In-Basket Technique
AT&T
was interested in determining which middle level managers to promote in the
1950's.
They
developed an assessment center, which would systematically evaluate a number of
managers over a several day period, and then assign a ranking system to guide
the promotions of those managers.
Their
assessment process involved the In-Basket technique, as well as additional
measures :
Group
Problem Solving Exercises, Interviews, and standard psychological tests.
The
candidates are evaluated with respect to active participation, organizational
skills, and decision making ability.
Because
this is such an exhaustive evaluation, they used it for upper level promotion,
rather than entry level job selection.
Other Tests of Special Abilities
Sensory/Perceptual
Skills Tests
Single
Purpose Instruments :
Smellen
Wall Chart :
Used to test visual acuity. Found in
every ophthalmologist's office in some form.
Audiometer
: Measure of auditory acuity, this machine
reproduces tones at different frequencies within the range of normal human
hearing (20 to 20000 Hz) . Often first experienced in elementary school.
Isihihara
Test of Color Blindness : Each pseudo-isochromatic plate in this tests
contains a pattern of colored dots which form a numeral, if someone with normal
color vision views the plate.
A
multipurpose visual testing instrument :
Bausch
& Lomb Vision Tester : 12 visual tests assess four categories of vision
: Muscular balance of the eyes
(vertical & lateral phoria); Acuity
in each eye, and both used together;
depth perception (stereopsis), and color perception.
Tests
of Psychomotor Ability
First
introduced in the 1920's.
Fleishman
(1972) identified 11 different psychomotor skills which could be tested.
Aim; arm-hand steadiness; control precision; finger dexterity; manual dexterity;
multilimb coordination; rate control; reaction time; response orientation; speed of arm movement; and wrist-finger
speed.
Fleishman
also noted that the reliabilities for psycho-motor tests was typically lower
than reliabilities associated with other tests of special abilities.
The
psychomotor tests he reviewed had average reliabilities ranging from .7 up to
.88
One
possible reason for this reduced reliability is that practice effects are very
strong on psychomotor tests.
Predictive
validity of psychomotor tests is poor, partially due to the influence of
practice on the test scores.
Psychomotor Tests
Vary
as to whether measuring Gross Dexterity, fine dexterity, or both. Females
typically show better fine dexterity control than males.
Gross
Manual Movements : Stromberg Dexterity Test and
the Minnesota Rate of Manipulation Test are two examples of psychomotor tests
designed to assess speed and accuracy of finger, hand, and arm movements.
Fine
Manual Movements : The O'Conner Tweezer Dexterity Test,The Purdue Pegboard, ands the
Crawford Small Parts test (which we
demonstrated the first week of class) are three examples of psychomotor tests
which use smaller parts to assess fine finger dexterity.
Combined
Tests
: The Pennsylvania Bi-Manual Worksample
and the Hand-Dexterity tests are two examples of psychomotor tests which assess
both gross and fine levels of dexterity.
Both of these tests use nuts and bolts, which the test taker moves from
one side of the board to the other.
The
amount of time it takes to complete any of these psychomotor test is what is
measured to assess the level of dexterity a particular applicant possesses.
Tests of Mechanical Ability
Although
a certain level of dexterity is required for any occupation involving the
manipulation of machinery, spatial perception and mechanical knowledge are
important determiners of performance, in addition to dexterity based
psycho-motor tests.
Males
typically score higher than Females on these two test types.
This
gender difference increases through high school, indicating a cultural
component. Hemispheric lateralization
before birth also contributes to the Male advantage in spatial processing.
Research
at the University of Minnesota in the 1920's led to development of three tests
of Spatial Ability :
The
Minnesota Mechanical Assembly Test : a work
sample test which required examinees to reassemble a set of disassembled
mechanical objects.
The
Minnesota Spatial Relations Test and The Minnesota Paper Formboard. : Two
tests of spatial ability which required individuals to visualize and manipulate
objects in three dimensions.
The
Revised Minnesota Paper Formboard Test
This
test is a revised form of the Minnesota Spatial Relations Test.
It
contains 64 items, which contain one frame of geometric pieces and then five
frames showing how those pieces might fit together.
The
examinee's job is to pick the frame which correctly represents the assembled
geometric pieces.
Test
scores on the Revised Formboard tests correlate positively with grades in shop
and engineering courses.
Test
scores also positively correlate with supervisor ratings, as well as
performance records in inspection, packing, machine operation in industrial
settings.
Also
interesting is that scores on this test are correlated with achievement in
dentistry and art.
Testing Mechanical Comprehension
In
addition to knowledge concerning visual processing ability, industry is also
interested in the level of mechanical knowledge an employee brings to the work
force.
The
Bennett Mechanical Comprehension Test (1980):
Test items consist of drawings and questions concerning mechanical
relationships and understanding of Newtonian physics.
Test
scores are moderately correlated with on the job measures of mechanical
performance.
Separate
norms are provided for each gender, reliability is lower for women than for
men.
Specific
Testing in Other Occupations
Administrative
Assistants, inspectors, and other occupations which involve symbol perception :
Minnesota
Clerical Test (1961) : A speed test which consists of 2 parts, Number Comparison and Name
Comparison. In each section, test taker
must compare two letter or number strings and determine whether they match or
don't match.
Scores
on the Minnesota Clerical Test is moderately correlated with supervisor ratings
of clerical work.
Clerical
Abilities Battery : A test battery designed to
assess talent in seven administrative areas :
Filing; Copying Information; Comparing Information; Using Tables; Proofreading, Addition &
Subtraction; and Reasoning and Numbers.
Performance
is compared to norms from specific clerical occupations.
Testing
Computer Related Abilities
Since
our economy has gone more and more "high-tech" , measures of computer
aptitude and achievement have been developed to ensure hiring of individuals
with at least a minimal level of computer related work skills.
One
test designed to measure computer programmer aptitude is the :
Computer
Programmer Aptitude Battery (CPAB) : this 75 minute tests contains the following
sections :
Verbal
Meaning; Reasoning; Letter Series; Number Ability; and Diagramming. Experienced Programmers and systems analysts were consulted when
these test items were constructed. Early studies indicate moderate predictive
validity for the CPAB.
A
test to assess whether someone has basic computer skills is the :
Computer
Operator Aptitude Battery (COAB) :
3
15 minute sections assess Sequence Recognition, Format Checking, and Logical Thinking.
Norms
are based on scores from experienced computer operators.
Tests
of Artistic Ability : Spatial perception tests
such as the Revised Minnesota Paper Formboard Test and specific tests such as
the Meier Art Tests (which assesses Art
Judgment and Aesthetic Perception); and the Graves Design Judgment Test.
The Horn Art test is a performance
test which requires the test taker to sketch common objects and geometric figures.
Tests
of Musical Ability : One of the oldest tests is the Seashore Measures of Musical
Talents, developed in the 1920's and 1930's. This test used a series of tones and notes.
The
Musical Aptitude Profile : Three basic musical factors :
Musical Expression, Aural
perception, and kinesthetic musical feeling, are assessed by 7 subtests in three sections : Tonal Imagery (test T), Rhythm Imagery (Test R); and Musical Sensitivity (Test M). This test takes about two hours to
administer and contains 250 original short selections of music. No previous knowledge of musical facts or
history is required, making ideal for school age children. A three year longitudinal study of the
Musical Aptitude Profile produced a correlation of .59 after one year of
musical instruction and .74 after three
years of musical instruction.
Tests of Creativity
Although
creativity would seem like an ideal trait to measure when attempting to find
"visionaries" , studies of creativity have led to some conflicting results, that is to say, creativity is not always
positive.
Jameson
(1984) :
Studied prominent British Artists (novelists, painters, posts, sculptors) and
concluded they were much more likely to have been treated for a mood disorder
than the general population.
Andreason
(87)
Studied 30 college faculty attending a writing workshop.
80% exhibited depression or
some other mood disorder
43
% were
diagnosed as Manic/Depressives
MacKinnon
(1962) stated that above average intelligence is necessary for creativity, but
beyond that motivational and situational factors influence the appearance of
this trait.
Tests of Creativity
Often
try to distinguish between creative and "less creative" people by
identifying when these two group diverge from typical thinking. As a result, many tests of creativity use
open ended sentences, making standardization of grading procedures difficult,
thus driving down reliability and validity.
Consequences
Test (Guilford, 1954) : "Imagine what
might happen if all laws were suddenly abolished? "
Remote
Associates Test (Mednick, 1962) Find a fourth word which is associated with
each of the se three words : A.
rat-blue-cottage; B. Wheel-electric-light; C. surprise-line-birthday
Unusual
Uses Tests (Guilford,
1954) "Find as many uses as you
can think of for A. toothpick; B.
brick,
C.
paper clip
Word
Association Test. (Getzels & Jackson, 1962)
Write as many meanings as you can for the following A. duck, B. sack, C. pitch
Creative
Test Battery : Torrance Test of
Creative Thinking (TTCT) : Three
picture based exercises and 6 word based exercises (Figural and Verbal).
Does
a good job of identifying gifted students.
Plan For Next Week Nov. 2000
Any
notes not posted on web site by Friday will be e-mailed to you as an attachment.
Monday
: Optional Review for Thursdays Test. I
will concisely review all notes since the first exam.
Chapters
covered are 6, 7, 8, 9 , and 14.
Criticisms
of intelligence testing and achievement testing are most relevant sections of
Chapter 14.
Test
on Thursday, Nov. 2 : Multiple Choice,
similar in construction to first exam.
Please
e-mail me if any questions arise while reviewing notes.